ASTM E2145-07(2013)

5.1.1 Information models are regarded widely as beneficial by saving cost through realignment of processes, risk reduction and elimination of redundancy. Information models convey ideas and facilitate the analysis and understanding of complex processes and structures. These models form the basis for software engineering practices that build systems and databases, redefine organizational structures, improve business processes, and develop standards.

5.1.2 This practice provides a practical means for developers and users of information models to employ appropriate modeling methods and to objectively determine model quality.

5.2.1 Models are representations of past, existing, or contemplated reality. Models may assist in the explanation or analysis of complex structures and processes that may exceed human capacity for direct visualization or understanding. Models enable a focus on the key elements of a process or structure while ignoring confounding or irrelevant elements. As such, models make an explicit statement of the meaning of the reality being modeled.

5.2.2 Integrated information engineering models provide a coherent view of the processes and data of an organization or enterprise (5). Activity models identify the fundamental tasks performed in a function. Process models accurately describe the detailed collection of these activities within an organization. Data models are derived from and support the functions described in activity models. Object models also characterize the processes and data required to understand business operations. Both structured and object-oriented models may be used to construct information systems that support those business operations. Application models describe in varying levels of detail, the overall architecture and components of the software needed to support the envisioned business functions. Organizational models reflect the current and envisioned future state of the organization, especially as this impacts business processes enabled or supported by information systems. Location models identify and describe the business and geographic position and relationships of structural components of an organizational entity. Technology models describe in varying levels of detail those hardware, system software, and network components needed to operate the information systems supporting a business area.

Models may be textual, graphic, or mixed graphic and text forms, including, tables and structured lists, flowcharts, process flow diagrams, state diagrams, data flow diagrams, entity-relationship diagrams, and related techniques develop an understanding of business processes and the transformation of data through these processes (6). Modeling products may also relate two or more types of models, such as for an Application-Data Matrix, or Technology-Location Plan.

5.3.1 Since proposed by Zachman in 1987 5.3.1.1 Row 1—artifacts define the scope as boundaries of the enterprise.

5.3.1.2 Row 2—artifacts define the conceptual design as envisioned by the enterprise “owners” or stakeholders.

5.3.1.3 Row 3—artifacts present a logical design, how the enterprise concepts will be realized independent of technology.

5.3.1.4 Row 4—artifacts describe the physical design, how the enterprise implementation is generally constrained by technology.

5.3.1.5 Row 5—artifacts specify the physical implementation as a specific application of technology.

5.4.1 Modeling activities have been prevalent throughout the history of the engineering disciplines. This rich history indicates four basic principles (7):

5.4.2 The three approaches to information modeling are characterized as top-down, bottom-up, and inside-out 5.4.2.1 The “top-down” approach follows a progression of activities that first analyzes and understands functionality of the domain-of-interest and only then progresses to model preparation. The top-down paradigm typically consists of preparing a high level or conceptual model followed successively by logical and physical models in increasing levels of detail. The strength of this approach is it provides a broadly-based and comprehensive set of rationally derived models that are generally appropriate across the spectrum of functional or business activities. This paradigm saves time, conserves resources, and reduces risk over the long-term course of system development.

The “bottom-up” approach reflects the experience of subject matter experts in one or more specialized subdomains. These panels of experts prepare small models that are subsequently integrated. The strength of this approach is that it addresses detail that can be easily converted to a specific application, and may be tuned or optimized for a small and contained segment of the business environment. Often, it is used when the entire domain is not well understood or in the absence of a business model foundation. The bottom-up paradigm solves small problems quickly. It produces narrowly focused model components requiring extensive effort for subsequent integration into systems with a broader scope or enterprise solutions.

5.6.1 System engineering is considered in all leading system lifecycle methodologies as a sequential, cyclic, or iterative sequence of four essential activities from a visionary or inception activity to deployment or implementation 5.6.1.1 Booch, et al (7) , state that the single fundamental reason for modeling a system is to better understand the system being developed, achieving four aims:

5.7 Using Models for Standards Development: